Smoking, Alcohol Consumption, and Caffeine Consumption During Pregnancy
Smoking, Alcohol Consumption, and Caffeine Consumption During Pregnancy
The Child Health and Development Studies is a ≥40-year follow-up of 20,754 pregnancies occurring between 1959 and 1967 in California. There were 84 cases of undescended testes at birth persisting to at least age 2 years among 7,574 liveborn sons whose mothers were interviewed in early pregnancy. Cases were matched to three controls on birth year and race. Compared with mothers of controls, mothers of cryptorchid boys consumed more caffeine during pregnancy (odds ratio = 1.4, 95% confidence interval: 1.1, 1.9 for an interquartile range equivalent to three cups of coffee per day) but were not more likely to smoke or drink alcohol when all behaviors were considered together. Other maternal and perinatal risk factors were not significantly associated with persistent cryptorchidism and did not confound the association with caffeine.
The prevalence of cryptorchidism is highly dependent on case definition and ranges from 0.5 percent if defined as undescended testis at 1 year of age or older to as high as 6.9 percent in newborn boys. Undescended testicles in newborn boys usually spontaneously descend within the first 6 months of life and can be predominantly linked to prematurity. The risk factors for persistent cryptorchidism may be different, however.
Of the 12 studies known to investigate maternal smoking and cryptorchidism, four reported a significantly positive association. Alcohol and coffee consumption in pregnancy are also associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes, and these behaviors often also covary with smoking. Fewer studies report on maternal alcohol and caffeine consumption in relation to cryptorchidism, nor do most studies adjust smoking associations for alcohol and caffeine.
In the present study, we investigated associations of maternal smoking, alcohol consumption, and caffeine consumption with persistent cryptorchidism in a large prospective pregnancy cohort, the Child Health and Development Studies (CHDS).
Abstract and Introduction
Abstract
The Child Health and Development Studies is a ≥40-year follow-up of 20,754 pregnancies occurring between 1959 and 1967 in California. There were 84 cases of undescended testes at birth persisting to at least age 2 years among 7,574 liveborn sons whose mothers were interviewed in early pregnancy. Cases were matched to three controls on birth year and race. Compared with mothers of controls, mothers of cryptorchid boys consumed more caffeine during pregnancy (odds ratio = 1.4, 95% confidence interval: 1.1, 1.9 for an interquartile range equivalent to three cups of coffee per day) but were not more likely to smoke or drink alcohol when all behaviors were considered together. Other maternal and perinatal risk factors were not significantly associated with persistent cryptorchidism and did not confound the association with caffeine.
Introduction
The prevalence of cryptorchidism is highly dependent on case definition and ranges from 0.5 percent if defined as undescended testis at 1 year of age or older to as high as 6.9 percent in newborn boys. Undescended testicles in newborn boys usually spontaneously descend within the first 6 months of life and can be predominantly linked to prematurity. The risk factors for persistent cryptorchidism may be different, however.
Of the 12 studies known to investigate maternal smoking and cryptorchidism, four reported a significantly positive association. Alcohol and coffee consumption in pregnancy are also associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes, and these behaviors often also covary with smoking. Fewer studies report on maternal alcohol and caffeine consumption in relation to cryptorchidism, nor do most studies adjust smoking associations for alcohol and caffeine.
In the present study, we investigated associations of maternal smoking, alcohol consumption, and caffeine consumption with persistent cryptorchidism in a large prospective pregnancy cohort, the Child Health and Development Studies (CHDS).